Exploring willingness-to-pay for ‘malaria-free’ rice among rural consumers in Rwanda: examining the potential for a local voluntary standard

Rulisa, Alexis; van Kempen, Luuk; Koch, Dirk-Jan

doi:10.1186/s40100-023-00271-w

Agricultural and Food Economics

Table 1 Consumer price instruments to mitigate negative agriculture-driven health externalities in the Global South: own-case comparison

From: Exploring willingness-to-pay for ‘malaria-free’ rice among rural consumers in Rwanda: examining the potential for a local voluntary standard

Ruhuha case, Rwanda	(a) Chaves et al. (2020)	(b) Okpiaifo et al. (2020)	(c) Runkle et al. (2021)	(d) Larnder-Besner et al. (2020)	(e) Hangoma & Surgey (2019)	(f) Estrada (2018)
Health externality .. concerns mosquito-borne infectious disease (malaria)	●	○	○	◑	○	○
		NCD^# [occupational hazards]	NCD [arsenic poisoning]	CD^# [zoonotic pandemic risk]	NCD [obesity-linked diseases]	NCD [lifestyle diseases]
.. stems from wet agriculture (rice cultivation)	◑	●	●	○	◑	◑
.. stems from wet agriculture (rice cultivation)	Crop agriculture [e.g. cocoa, coffee]			Livestock production [meat]	Crop agriculture [sugarcane]	Crop agriculture [tobacco]
.. emerges exclusively in production stage	●	●	◑	◑	○	○
.. emerges exclusively in production stage		[e.g. agrochemical exposure]	Production & consumption [toxic metalloids]	Entire value chain	Consumption stage [intake of sugary foods]	Consumption stage [smoking]
.. impacts producers & production area residents	●	◑	○	◑	○	○
.. impacts producers & production area residents		Producers only	Consumers only	All	Consumers only	Consumers & co-residents [second-hand exposure]
.. is localized (spatial proximity of producers, consumers & affected residents)	○	◑	◑	◑	◑	◑
	International [Southern farmers v. consumers in North]	National [Nigeria; rural farmers v. urban consumers]	National & regional [South(east) Asia]	Local & global [meat product exports]	National [Zambia]	National [Philippines]
(Proposed) consumer price instrument	VSS* [crop-specific]	VSS [crop-specific]	VSS [crop-specific]	Tax^‡ [global]	Excise tax [national]	Excise tax [national]

Colour-coding of dots indicate degree of similarity with our case; black dot = strong similarity or shared feature; half black/half white dot = medium similarity; white dot = weak or no similarity
#(N)CD = (Non-) Communicable Disease
*VSS = Voluntary Sustainability Standard
^‡Tax is proposed to be levied at country level based on a nation’s global consumption share; governments may choose to pass the cost on to local consumers

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