Table 2 Association between market access and HHDS for 324 smallholder households

Distance to market

− 0.188*** (0.069)

− 0.397*** (0.061)

Distance to market (squared)

0.006 (0.004)

0.018*** (0.004)

Walking time to markets

− 1.101*** (0.381)

− 2.245*** (0.353)

Walking time to markets (squared)

0.212 (0.132)

0.611*** (0.124)

Distance to a road

0.006 (0.020)

− 0.021 (0.020)

Distance to a road (squared)

− 0.000 (0.000)

0.000 (0.000)

Production diversity score

0.045 (0.074)

− 0.155** (0.073)

0.049 (0.074)

− 0.153** (0.073)

− 0.032 (0.076)

− 0.288*** (0.077)

Farm size

0.098* (0.050)

0.090* (0.046)

0.101** (0.050)

0.087* (0.046)

0.052 (0.053)

0.050 (0.051)

Nonfarm activities—Yes = 1

0.430*** (0.150)

0.400*** (0.145)

0.430*** (0.150)

0.416*** (0.145)

0.563*** (0.154)

0.637*** (0.152)

Livestock holding in TLUs

0.107*** (0.026)

− 0.036 (0.022)

0.108*** (0.026)

− 0.030 (0.022)

0.126*** (0.026)

− 0.002 (0.026)

Household head age

− 0.007 (0.006)

− 0.009* (0.005)

− 0.007 (0.006)

− 0.009* (0.005)

− 0.004 (0.006)

− 0.006 (0.005)

Household head education

0.052** (0.023)

0.046** (0.021)

0.052** (0.023)

0.045** (0.021)

0.054** (0.023)

0.041* (0.022)

Female-headed household—Yes = 1

0.222 (0.240)

0.120 (0.217)

0.217 (0.242)

0.123 (0.220)

0.204 (0.247)

0.007 (0.238)

Household size

0.087** (0.038)

0.075** (0.035)

0.086** (0.038)

0.073** (0.036)

0.072* (0.039)

0.055 (0.039)

Constant

8.065*** (0.436)

8.425*** (0.389)

8.055*** (0.435)

8.345*** (0.386)

7.671*** (0.431)

7.812*** (0.391)

R-squared

0.20

0.27

0.21

0.22

0.15

0.16

Model F-statistics

9.549

12.265

10.009

12.462

7.405

6.249

Model p value

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000